Kigali Amendment at 10: India's HFC Phase-Down and Sustainable Cooling Challenge Explained

Understanding the amendment: The Kigali Amendment is an international agreement adopted on 15 October 2016 in Kigali, Rwanda, at the 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol.

It amended the Montreal Protocol to bring hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) under international controls.

HFCs are man-made chemicals widely used in air conditioners, refrigerators and other cooling systems.

Although these substances do not significantly deplete the ozone layer, many are powerful greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.

Main objective: The Kigali Amendment requires countries to progressively reduce the production and consumption of HFCs according to legally binding schedules.

It entered into force on 1 January 2019.

Why the anniversary matters: Ten years after adoption, attention is shifting from negotiating commitments to implementing them effectively.

The growing use of cooling equipment, especially in developing economies, makes implementation increasingly important.

India's importance: India has a large population, rapidly expanding cities and increasing demand for cooling. Its transition to low-emission cooling technologies will influence future electricity demand, industrial competitiveness and greenhouse gas emissions.

The central policy challenge is to make cooling accessible and affordable without creating unsustainable energy demand or emissions.

Origin of international ozone protection: The Montreal Protocol emerged from international concern over depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer.

The ozone layer absorbs much of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation and protects human health, agriculture and ecosystems.

The international legal framework developed through three important agreements.

Vienna Convention: The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer established a framework for scientific research, monitoring and international cooperation.

It did not itself establish the detailed chemical phase-out schedules subsequently introduced under the Montreal Protocol.

Montreal Protocol: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in 1987 and entered into force in 1989.

It introduced legally binding controls on the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons and halons.

Success of the Protocol: According to the UNEP-supported Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2022, international action has phased out nearly 99% of controlled ozone-depleting substances covered by phase-out commitments.

This has placed the ozone layer on a long-term recovery path.

Under continued compliance and the assessment's assumptions, ozone levels are projected to return approximately to their 1980 values around 2040 for most of the world and around 2066 over Antarctica.

Why Kigali was necessary: As ozone-depleting chemicals were removed from commercial applications, industries increasingly adopted alternatives such as HFCs.

However, many HFCs were found to have high global warming potential.

The Kigali Amendment therefore expanded the Montreal Protocol's environmental significance from ozone protection to climate-change mitigation.

Refrigerants are chemicals used in cooling systems to absorb heat from one location and release it elsewhere.

Different generations of refrigerants have different environmental effects.

CFCs: Chlorofluorocarbons contain chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They were historically used in refrigeration, aerosols and foam manufacturing.

Their stability allows them to reach the stratosphere, where ultraviolet radiation releases chlorine atoms that destroy ozone through chemical reactions.

HCFCs: Hydrochlorofluorocarbons were introduced as transitional substitutes for CFCs.

They generally damage the ozone layer less severely than CFCs, but still have ozone-depleting potential.

Consequently, they are also being phased out under the Montreal Protocol.

HFCs: Hydrofluorocarbons contain hydrogen, fluorine and carbon but no chlorine or bromine.

They do not significantly destroy stratospheric ozone. However, many absorb outgoing infrared radiation and contribute strongly to global warming.

HFOs: Hydrofluoroolefins generally break down more quickly in the atmosphere and have low global warming potential. Their safety and environmental characteristics must nevertheless be assessed individually.

Global Warming Potential (GWP): GWP measures how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere over a specified period compared with the same mass of carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide is assigned a GWP of 1.

The most commonly used comparison period is 100 years, although 20-year values are also used in climate science.

Illustration: HFC-134a has a 100-year GWP of approximately 1,430 under commonly used assessment values.

This means that releasing one tonne of HFC-134a can produce approximately the same cumulative warming effect over 100 years as releasing 1,430 tonnes of carbon dioxide, using that particular GWP assessment.

GWP values may vary somewhat between scientific assessment reports.

Carbon dioxide equivalent: Greenhouse gas emissions are often expressed in carbon dioxide equivalent, or CO₂e, to compare the warming impact of different gases.

A simplified calculation is:

CO₂e = Gas emitted × GWP

For example, one tonne of a gas with GWP 1,000 represents 1,000 tonnes of CO₂e over the chosen assessment period.

Importance for Kigali: The treaty calculates HFC production and consumption in CO₂-equivalent terms.

Therefore, replacing a high-GWP HFC with a lower-GWP alternative can reduce the calculated climate impact even when the physical quantity of refrigerant remains similar.

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): ODP is a separate measure that compares a substance's capacity to deplete ozone with that of CFC-11, whose ODP is assigned the reference value of 1.

For UPSC, GWP and ODP must not be confused.

Legally binding reduction: The Amendment establishes schedules under which participating countries must progressively reduce controlled HFC production and consumption.

It does not require every country to eliminate all HFCs immediately.

Production: Production refers to the manufacture of controlled chemicals, with specific adjustments and exemptions defined under the treaty.

Consumption: Under the Montreal Protocol's accounting framework, consumption broadly means domestic production plus imports minus exports, subject to prescribed exclusions.

It is not simply the amount of refrigerant used by households during a particular year.

Baseline: A baseline is a reference level against which future reduction commitments are calculated.

Freeze: A freeze requires a country to prevent its calculated HFC production or consumption from exceeding the permitted baseline level.

It does not mean that HFC production must fall to zero.

Phase-down versus phase-out:

• Phase-down means progressively reducing permitted quantities.

• Phase-out means eliminating controlled production and consumption, subject to applicable exemptions.

The Kigali Amendment primarily establishes an HFC phase-down.

Monitoring and reporting: Countries are required to maintain relevant licensing and reporting arrangements. These help track production, imports, exports and compliance with the treaty.

Treaty provisions: The Kigali Amendment added HFCs to Annex F of the Montreal Protocol, while Article 2J contains important HFC control measures and Article 5 provides differentiated arrangements for developing countries.

India's ratification: India ratified the Kigali Amendment on 27 September 2021. The Amendment entered into force for India on 26 December 2021.

India belongs to Article 5 Group 2, a category of developing countries permitted a later HFC freeze and reduction timetable.

India's baseline: India's HFC baseline is calculated using the average HFC production or consumption during 2024–2026, together with an additional component equal to 65% of the relevant HCFC baseline.

This formulation recognises the transition from older HCFC-based technologies and gives developing industries time to adjust.

India's HFC phase-down schedule:

The reductions are cumulative relative to the baseline, not additional reductions applied one after another.

For example, the 2047 requirement means reducing calculated HFC consumption and production by 85% relative to their applicable baseline levels, leaving 15% of that baseline.

Why India received a different timetable: India's refrigeration and air-conditioning markets are still expanding.

The later timetable recognises development needs, industrial adjustment costs, technological readiness and the principle of differentiated responsibilities.

Current significance: Although India's first mandatory percentage reduction starts in 2032, its 2028 freeze is much closer.

The period before the freeze is critical for establishing reliable reporting, making technological choices and avoiding excessive dependence on equipment that uses high-GWP refrigerants.

No. The Kigali Amendment establishes differentiated schedules.

Developed countries: Most non-Article 5 countries began reductions in 2019 and are scheduled to achieve an 85% reduction by 2036.

Developing countries — Group 1: Most Article 5 developing countries froze HFC consumption in 2024 and are scheduled to reach an 80% reduction by 2045.

Developing countries — Group 2: India and certain other countries, including several West Asian countries and Pakistan, have a freeze year of 2028 and an 85% reduction target for 2047.

These schedules are subject to the detailed provisions and limited exceptions contained in the treaty.

Reason for differentiation: Countries differ in industrial capacity, financial resources, climatic requirements, technology access and historical use of refrigerants.

Differentiated schedules allow developing economies additional time to transition without abandoning environmental commitments.

International cooperation: The Kigali system seeks to combine legally binding controls with financial assistance and technology transfer.

This makes it an important example of international environmental cooperation for GS2 and GS3.

Climate mitigation: HFCs represent a smaller share of total greenhouse gas emissions than carbon dioxide, but many have much higher warming effects per unit of mass.

Reducing their emissions can therefore provide important climate benefits.

Expected temperature benefit: Scientific assessments indicate that full implementation of the Kigali Amendment could help avoid approximately 0.3°C–0.5°C of global warming by 2100, relative to relevant scenarios without the controls.

This is an estimated avoided increase, not a guarantee that global temperatures will fall by that amount.

Importance of near-term action: Many HFCs have shorter atmospheric lifetimes than carbon dioxide.

Reducing their emissions can therefore help slow warming over comparatively shorter timescales while longer-term decarbonisation continues.

Connection with the Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement seeks to hold the increase in global average temperature well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.

The Kigali Amendment complements these objectives by targeting a specific class of greenhouse gases through legally binding chemical controls.

However, Kigali alone cannot achieve the Paris Agreement's temperature goals, because carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases also require substantial reductions.

Rising temperatures: More frequent and intense heatwaves increase the need for thermal comfort and protection from heat-related illness.

Urbanisation: Rapidly growing cities experience the urban heat island effect, in which built-up areas become hotter than their rural surroundings.

Concrete, asphalt, reduced vegetation and waste heat from human activities contribute to this phenomenon.

Rising incomes: As more households gain purchasing power, refrigerators and air conditioners become increasingly affordable.

Expanding economic activity: Hospitals, pharmaceutical storage, food-processing industries, data centres, transport systems and commercial buildings require cooling.

Feedback effect: Increasing temperatures raise demand for cooling. If cooling depends on inefficient equipment, high-GWP refrigerants and fossil-fuel-based electricity, it can increase greenhouse gas emissions.

These additional emissions contribute to further warming, creating a reinforcing cycle.

Equity dimension: Cooling is increasingly necessary for health, productivity and livelihoods.

The objective should therefore be sustainable cooling access, not simply restricting cooling services.

India is among the countries where future cooling demand is expected to grow rapidly because of its climatic conditions, population, urbanisation and economic development.

Electricity demand: According to a June 2026 analysis by the International Energy Agency (IEA), cooling already accounts for slightly more than 10% of India's total annual electricity consumption.

The IEA projects that, under current policy settings, India's cooling electricity demand could more than double by 2035.

Nighttime electricity use: Air conditioners can account for as much as one-third of electricity consumption during particularly hot summer nights.

This creates an important challenge for electricity-grid management.

Solar power mismatch: Solar electricity generation is concentrated during daylight hours, while residential cooling demand may remain high at night.

Consequently, increasing solar capacity must be complemented by storage, flexible generation, demand management and other sources of reliable supply.

Peak demand: Peak demand refers to the highest level of electricity required during a particular time interval.

A rapid rise in air-conditioner use can increase peak demand, requiring additional generation capacity, transmission infrastructure and distribution-system investments.

Developmental implications: Reliable cooling is important not only for household comfort but also for agricultural cold chains, vaccine storage, health services, industrial production and protection from extreme heat.

India's challenge is to expand these benefits without proportionately increasing electricity consumption or climate emissions.

Conventional cooling systems contribute to greenhouse gas emissions through two major pathways.

Direct emissions: These occur when refrigerant gases escape from cooling equipment into the atmosphere.

Leakage may occur during manufacturing, installation, regular operation, maintenance or disposal.

If the refrigerant has a high GWP, relatively small leaks can produce a significant climate impact.

Indirect emissions: These arise from electricity used to operate the cooling equipment.

When electricity is generated using coal, natural gas or other fossil fuels, it produces carbon dioxide and other emissions.

An air conditioner may therefore contribute to climate change even if its refrigerant never leaks.

Why refrigerant replacement is insufficient: Replacing an old HFC with a low-GWP alternative reduces the direct emissions problem.

However, if the new air conditioner consumes excessive electricity, its indirect emissions may remain high.

Integrated solution: Sustainable cooling requires both low-GWP refrigerants and energy-efficient equipment, supported by cleaner electricity.

This approach can reduce direct and indirect emissions together.

Introduction: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change launched the India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) in March 2019.

It is a comprehensive policy framework for sustainable cooling across sectors, rather than a plan limited to household air conditioners.

It addresses building cooling, refrigeration, cold chains, transport cooling, refrigerants, energy efficiency, research and workforce development.

India was the first country to formulate a national cooling action plan of this kind.

Main objectives: ICAP seeks to expand access to thermal comfort while reducing cooling-related environmental impacts.

Its targets for 2037–38 include:

• Reducing cooling demand across sectors by 20%–25%.

• Reducing refrigerant demand by 25%–30%.

• Reducing cooling energy requirements by 25%–40%.

• Strengthening research and development in sustainable cooling technologies.

• Training and certifying 100,000 refrigeration and air-conditioning service technicians, with an original target year of 2022–23.

These are policy targets, not a statement that all outcomes have already been achieved.

Relevance to Kigali: The Kigali Amendment focuses on reducing HFC production and consumption.

ICAP adopts a broader approach by addressing the underlying requirement for cooling, electricity efficiency, technological alternatives and servicing practices.

Social benefits: Sustainable cooling can improve living conditions, reduce household electricity expenses, support food preservation and strengthen public health services.

Economic benefits: The transition can create opportunities for Indian manufacturers, equipment designers, technicians and researchers.

A successful implementation strategy must therefore combine climate goals with industrial development and affordability.

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change: MoEFCC is the principal ministry responsible for India's Montreal Protocol commitments, including the Kigali Amendment.

Ozone Cell: The Ozone Cell under MoEFCC coordinates implementation, reporting, industrial transition and related activities under the Montreal Protocol.

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: This provides an important legal foundation for regulating environmentally harmful substances and activities.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000: These rules regulate the production, consumption, import, export and related activities involving specified ozone-depleting substances.

They form part of India's established regulatory framework for Montreal Protocol implementation.

The government approved the development of HFC phase-down provisions and a national phase-down strategy following ratification of Kigali.

It is important to distinguish the existing ODS rules from separate regulatory requirements needed to control HFCs, which are not ozone-depleting substances.

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): BEE, under the Ministry of Power, supports energy efficiency through standards, appliance labelling and building-related energy measures.

Its star-labelling system helps consumers compare the energy performance of air conditioners.

Indian Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (ISEER): ISEER measures the seasonal energy efficiency of air-conditioning equipment under Indian operating conditions.

A higher ISEER generally indicates more efficient cooling performance.

Building efficiency measures: Initiatives such as the Energy Conservation Building Code and Eco-Niwas Samhita support lower cooling-related energy demand through better building design.

Coordination requirement: Effective implementation requires cooperation among environmental regulators, power-sector institutions, industry, technical standards bodies, state governments and local authorities.

Low-GWP refrigerants: These are substances that produce a smaller warming effect than high-GWP HFCs when released into the atmosphere.

However, alternative refrigerants differ in operating pressure, flammability, toxicity, efficiency and technical suitability.

Important alternatives include:

Technology selection: No single refrigerant is ideal for every application.

The best option depends on the cooling system, climatic conditions, cost, energy performance and applicable safety standards.

For example, hydrocarbons are flammable, ammonia requires special handling, and carbon dioxide systems may operate at relatively high pressures.

Industrial implications: Refrigerant transitions may require redesigned compressors, heat exchangers, piping, safety mechanisms and servicing procedures.

Consequently, India needs research, testing facilities, manufacturing upgrades and skilled technicians.

Avoiding repeated transitions: Industries should preferably move towards solutions with long-term climate compatibility rather than investing heavily in intermediate technologies that may soon require replacement.

Combined climate benefits: The United Nations Environment Programme has highlighted that improving the energy efficiency of cooling equipment during the refrigerant transition can substantially increase the climate benefits.

A refrigeration system with a low-GWP refrigerant and high energy efficiency addresses both major emission pathways.

Efficient compressors: Variable-speed compressors can adjust their operation to match cooling demand, reducing unnecessary electricity use.

Improved heat exchangers: Better heat transfer can reduce the electricity needed to provide the same cooling service.

Thermal insulation: Improved insulation reduces the movement of unwanted heat into cooled spaces.

Smart cooling: Sensors, programmable controls and automated systems can reduce unnecessary operation.

Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS): These establish minimum energy efficiency requirements that covered equipment must satisfy.

Labelling: Clear efficiency labels encourage consumers to consider long-term electricity costs rather than only the initial purchase price.

Grid benefits: More efficient equipment can reduce peak electricity demand and lower the need for expensive additional power infrastructure.

Meaning: Passive cooling refers to building design and other techniques that reduce indoor temperatures or prevent excessive heat gain without relying primarily on mechanical refrigeration.

Important measures include:

Cool roofs: Light-coloured or reflective roof surfaces reduce solar heat absorption.

Thermal insulation: Insulation slows the movement of external heat into buildings.

Building orientation: Proper orientation reduces excessive solar exposure during hotter periods.

Natural ventilation: Well-planned openings allow air circulation when outdoor conditions are favourable.

External shading: Roof overhangs, shaded windows and vegetation can reduce direct sunlight entering buildings.

Urban greening: Trees, parks and green spaces provide shade and can help moderate urban temperatures.

Traditional architecture: Courtyards, thick walls, shaded verandas and climate-sensitive construction techniques can improve thermal comfort under suitable local conditions.

Limitations: Passive strategies are not equally effective in all climates. High humidity, extreme temperatures and poor outdoor air quality may limit natural ventilation and passive comfort.

Importance for India: Passive cooling is particularly relevant to affordable housing, public buildings and rapidly expanding cities.

It can reduce the size and operating time of mechanical cooling systems, lowering both costs and electricity demand.

Institutional background: The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol was established in 1990 and began operating in 1991.

It provides financial and technical assistance to eligible developing countries covered by Article 5 of the Montreal Protocol.

Funding arrangement: Developed-country parties contribute to the Fund, which supports eligible activities in developing countries.

Types of assistance: The Fund may support industrial conversion, preparation of implementation plans, technician training, technology-related activities and institutional capacity building.

Implementing agencies: Important implementing agencies include UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO and the World Bank.

Relevance to Kigali: The HFC transition can create substantial costs for developing countries.

Financial support helps eligible industries and governments adopt technologies needed to meet their commitments.

Energy-efficiency opportunities: Montreal Protocol decisions also recognise the importance of improving energy efficiency during refrigerant transitions.

However, specific activities and funding eligibility are governed by decisions of the Fund's Executive Committee.

Equity considerations: Sustainable cooling policies must recognise differences in technological readiness, financial resources and development needs.

This makes climate finance and technology transfer particularly important for countries such as India.

High transition costs: Switching to alternative refrigerants may require redesigning equipment and modifying manufacturing facilities.

Research and development: Domestic industry needs technical solutions appropriate for Indian climatic conditions and electricity infrastructure.

MSME constraints: Smaller manufacturers and service enterprises may face difficulties accessing capital, specialised equipment and technical expertise.

Servicing challenges: Refrigerant leaks often occur because of poor installation, inadequate maintenance or improper disposal.

Technicians must be trained to handle alternative refrigerants safely.

Consumer affordability: More efficient cooling equipment may have higher initial purchase costs, even when it saves money through lower electricity bills.

Existing equipment: Millions of cooling appliances can remain in service for many years.

A gradual transition must therefore address refrigerant leakage and servicing in existing equipment, not merely future manufacturing.

End-of-life management: Old air conditioners and refrigerators may contain refrigerants that must be recovered instead of released during dismantling.

Supply-chain dependence: Import dependence for specialised components, refrigerants or production technologies can increase industrial costs.

Regulatory coordination: Refrigerant restrictions, safety standards, building efficiency, electricity planning and industrial policy need coordinated implementation.

India must balance environmental commitments with economic development, technological feasibility and affordable cooling.

Report: UNEP's Global Cooling Watch 2025 examines future cooling demand, associated greenhouse gas emissions and pathways towards sustainable cooling.

Global projections: Under a business-as-usual scenario, cooling demand could more than triple by 2050.

This could nearly double cooling-related greenhouse gas emissions compared with 2022 levels, reaching approximately 7.2 billion tonnes of CO₂-equivalent annually by 2050.

Sustainable Cooling Pathway: UNEP identifies a pathway based on passive cooling, improved energy efficiency, low-emission technologies and refrigerant phase-down.

Under this pathway, projected cooling emissions could be around 64% lower than the business-as-usual level in 2050.

Electricity decarbonisation: If cooling-sector improvements are combined with rapid reductions in the carbon intensity of electricity, the overall emissions benefit could be much greater.

UPSC significance: The report demonstrates that cooling policy is not solely an environmental issue.

It also involves public health, electricity infrastructure, urban development, affordable housing and social equity.

Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs): These are climate-warming substances that generally remain in the atmosphere for a shorter period than carbon dioxide but can have a strong warming influence.

Their reduction can deliver comparatively rapid climate benefits.

Important SLCPs include methane, black carbon, tropospheric ozone and many HFCs.

Methane: Methane is emitted from sources including livestock, landfills, fossil-fuel systems and agricultural activities.

Black carbon: Black carbon is a component of soot generated by incomplete combustion of fuels and biomass.

It affects climate by absorbing sunlight and can reduce snow and ice reflectivity when deposited on their surfaces.

Tropospheric ozone: Ground-level ozone is formed through atmospheric chemical reactions involving pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in sunlight.

It contributes to warming and can harm human health and vegetation.

Hydrofluorocarbons: Many HFCs are powerful greenhouse gases used in cooling and other industrial applications.

Scope of Kigali: The Kigali Amendment specifically regulates listed HFCs; it does not directly establish phase-down schedules for methane, black carbon or tropospheric ozone.

Policy implication: India can achieve wider environmental benefits by combining HFC reduction with methane mitigation, cleaner combustion technologies, air-pollution control and improved energy efficiency.

The pollutants require different technical and regulatory approaches, even though many contribute to climate warming.

Public health: Access to cooling can reduce risks from extreme heat and help maintain appropriate conditions in hospitals and healthcare facilities.

Food security: Efficient cold chains help preserve perishable agricultural produce and reduce post-harvest losses.

Agricultural incomes: Improved storage and transport can help farmers reduce spoilage and improve market access.

Energy security: More efficient cooling reduces electricity demand and can improve the reliability of the power system.

Urban development: Climate-responsive building design and urban greening can help moderate heat exposure and reduce dependence on air conditioning.

Employment: Sustainable cooling creates potential demand for technicians, engineers, equipment manufacturers, researchers and maintenance services.

Climate commitments: Refrigerant management and improved energy efficiency complement India's broader greenhouse gas mitigation and energy transition efforts.

International significance: India can demonstrate how developing countries can expand access to cooling while reducing the environmental costs associated with conventional technologies.

The success of this approach depends on technological innovation, implementation capacity, financing and equitable access.